The Improvement of Human Reason

He observed that if a star arose at any time in a great circle and another star at the same time in a lesser circle, yet nevertheless, as they arose together, so they set together; and he observed it of all the stars, and at all times. From whence he concluded that the heaven was of a spherical figure; in which opinion he was confirmed by observing the return of the sun, moon and stars to the east after their setting; and also because they always appeared to him of the same bigness, both when they rose, and when they were in the midst of heaven, and at the time of their setting; whereas, if their motions had not been circular, they must have been nearer to sight, at some times than others; and consequently their dimensions would have appeared proportionably greater or lesser; but since there was no such appearance, he concluded that their motions were circular. Then he considered the motion of the moon and the planets from west to east, till as last he understood a great part of astronomy. Besides, he apprehended that their motions were in different spheres, all which were comprehended in another which was above them all, and which turned about all the rest in the space of a day and a night. But it would be too tedious to explain particularly how he advanced in this science; besides, 'tis taught in other books; and what we have already said is as much as is requisite for our present purpose.

When he had attained to this degree of knowledge, he found that the whole orb of the heavens, and whatsoever was contained in it was as one thing compacted and joined together; and that all those bodies which he used to consider before as earth, water, air, plants, animals and the like, were all of them so contained in it as never to go out of its bounds, and that the whole was like one animal, in which the luminaries represented the senses; the spheres so joined and compacted together answered to the limbs; and the sublunary world to the belly, in which the excrements and humors are contained, and which oftentimes breeds animals, as the greater world.

Now when it appeared to him that the whole world was only one substance, depending upon a voluntary agent, and he had united all the parts of it, by the same way of thinking which he had before made use of in considering the sublunary world; he proposed to his consideration the world in general, and debated with himself whether it did exist in time, after it had been; and came to be out of nothing; or whether it had been from eternity, without any privation preceding it. Concerning this matter, he had very many and great doubts; so that neither of these two opinions did prevail over the other. For when he proposed to himself the belief of its eternity, there arose a great many objections in his mind; because he thought that the notion of infinite existence was pressed with no less difficulties than that of infinite extension. And that such a being as was not free from accidents produced anew, must also itself be produced anew, because it cannot be said to be more ancient than those accidents. And that which cannot exist before accidents produced in time, must needs itself be produced in time. Then on the other hand, when he proposed to himself the belief of its being produced anew, other objections occurred to him; for he perceived that it was impossible to conceive any notion of its being produced anew, unless it was supposed that there was time before it; whereas time was one of those things which belonged to the world, and was inseparable from it; and therefore the world could not be supposed to be later than time. Then he considered that a thing crated must needs have a Creator. And, if so, why did this Creator make the world now and not, as well before? Was it because of any new chance which happened to Him? That could not be, for there was nothing existent besides Himself? Was it then upon the account of any change in His own nature? But what should cause that change? Thus he continued for several years, arguing pro and con about this matter; and a great many arguments offered themselves on both sides so that neither of these two opinions in his judgment overbalanced the other.

This put him to a great deal of trouble, which made him begin to consider with himself what were the consequences which did follow from each of these opinions, and that perhaps they might be both alike. And he perceived that if he held the world was created in time and existed after a total privation, it would necessarily follow from thence that it could not exist of itself, without the help of some Agent to produce it. And that this Agent must needs be such an one as cannot be apprehended by our senses; for if He should be the object of sense, He must be body, and if body, then a part of the world, and consequently a created being; such an one as would have stood in need of some other cause to create Him. And if that second creator was body, He would depend upon a third, and that third upon a fourth, and so ad infinitum, which is absurd. Since therefore the world stands in need of an incorporeal Creator, and since the Creator thereof is really incorporeal, 'tis impossible for us to apprehend Him by any of our senses; for we perceive nothing by the help of them but body, or such accidents as adhere to bodies. And because He cannot be perceived by the senses, it is impossible He should be apprehended by the imagination; for the imagination does only represent to us the forms of things in their absence, which we have before learned by our senses. And since He is not body, we must not attribute to Him any of the properties of body; the first of which is extension, from which He is free, as also from all those properties of bodies which flow from it. And seeing that He is the maker of the world, doubtless He has the sovereign command over it. Shall not he know it, that created it? He is wise, omniscient!

On the other side, he saw that if he held the eternity of the world, and that it always was as it is, without any privation before it; then it would follow, that its motion must be eternal too; because there could be no rest before it, from whence it might commence its motion. Now all motion necessarily requires a mover; and this mover must be either a power diffused through the body, or else through some other body without it, or else a certain power, not diffused or dispersed through any body at all. Now very power which passeth or is diffused through any body is divided or doubled. For instance, the gravity in a stone, by which it tends downwards, if you divide the stone into two parts, is divided into two parts also; and if you add to it another like it, the gravity is doubled. And if it were possible to add stones in infinitum, the gravity would increase in infinitum too. And if it were possible, that stone should grow still bigger till it reached to an infinite extension, the weight would increase also in the same proportion; and if, on the other side, a stone should grow to a certain size, and stop there, the gravity would also increase to such a pitch, and no farther. Now it is demonstrated that all body must necessarily be finite; and consequently, that power which is in body is finite too. If therefore we can find any power, which produces an infinite effect, 'tis plain that it is not in body. Now we find that the heaven is moved about with a perpetual motion without any cessation. Therefore if we affirm the eternity of the world, it necessarily follows that the power which moves it is not in its own body, nor in the other exterior body; but proceeds from something altogether abstracted from body, and which cannot be described by corporeal adjuncts or properties. Now he had learned from his first contemplation of the sublunary world, that the true essence of body consisted in its form, which is its disposition to several sorts of motion; but that part of its essence which consisted in matter was very mean, and scarce possible to be conceived; therefore, the existence of the whole world consists in its disposition to be moved by this mover. Who is free from matter and the properties of body; abstracted from everything which we can perceive by our senses, or reach by our imagination. And since He is the efficient cause of the motion of the heavens, in which (notwithstanding their several kinds) there is no difference, no confusion, no cessation; without doubt He has power over it, and a perfect knowledge of it.

Thus his contemplation this way brought him to the same conclusion it did the other way. So that doubting concerning the eternity of the world and its existence de novo, did him no harm at all. For it was plain to him both ways, that there was a being, which was not body, nor jointed to body, nor separated from it; nor within it, nor without it; because conjunction and separation, and being within any thing, or without it, are all properties of body, from which that being is altogether abstracted. And because all bodies stand in need of a form to be added to their matter, as not being able to subsist without it, nor exist really; and the form itself cannot exist, but by this Voluntary Agent, it appeared to him that all things owed their existence to this Agent; and that none of them could subsist but through Him, and, consequently, that He was the cause, and they the effects (whether they were newly created after a privation, or whether they had no beginning in respect of Him, 'twas all one), and creatures whose existence depended upon that Being; and that without His continuance they could not continue, nor exist without His existing, nor have been eternal without His being eternal; but that He was essentially independent of them and free from them. And how should it be otherwise when it is demonstrated that His power and might are infinite, and that all bodies, and whatsoever belongs to them are finite? Consequently, that the whole world and whatsoever was in it, the heavens, the earth, the stars, and whatsoever was between them, above them, or beneath them, was all His work and creation and posterior to Him in nature, if not in time. As, if you take any body whatsoever in your hand, and then move your hand, the body will without doubt follow the motion of your hand with such a motion as shall be posterior to it in nature, though not in time, because they both began together. So all this world is caused and created by this Agent out of time, Whose command is, when he would have anything done, BE, and it is.

And when he perceived that all things which did exist were His workmanship, he looked them over again, considering attentively the power of the efficient, and admiring the wonderfulness of the workmanship, and such accurate wisdom and subtle knowledge. And there appeared to him in the most minute creatures (much more in the greater) such footsteps of wisdom and wonders of the work of creation that he was swallowed up with admiration, and fully assured that these things could not proceed from any other than a Voluntary Agent of infinite perfection, nay, that as above all perfection; such an one, to Whom the weight of the least atom was not unknown, whether in heaven or earth; no, nor any other thing, whether lesser or greater than it.

Then he considered all the kinds of animals and how this Agent had given such a fabric of body to every one of them, and then taught them how to use it. For if He had not directed them to apply those limbs which He had given them, to those respective uses for which they were designed, they would have been so far from being of any service that they would rather have been a burden. From whence he knew that the Creator of the world was supereminently bountiful and exceedingly gracious. And then when he perceived among the creatures any that had beauty, perfection, strength, or excellency of any kind whatever, he considered with himself, and knew that it all flowed from that Voluntary Agent (Whose name be praised) and from His essence and operation. And he knew that what the Agent had in His own nature was greater than that (which he saw in the creatures), more perfect and complete, more beautiful and glorious, and more lasting; and that there was no proportion between the one and the other. Neither did he cease to prosecute this search, till he had run through all the attributes of perfection, and found that they were all in this Agent, and all flowed from Him; and that He was most worthy to have them all ascribed to Him, above all the creatures which were described by them.

In like manner he enquired into all the attributes of imperfection and perceived that the Maker of the world was free from them all. And how was it possible for Him to be otherwise, since the notion of imperfection is nothing but mere privation or what depends upon it? And how can He any way partake of privation Who is very essence, and cannot but exist; Who gives being to everything that exists and besides Whom there is no existence? But HE is the Being, HE is the Absoluteness, HE is the Beauty, HE the glory, HE the Power, HE the Knowledge, HE is HE, and besides Him all things are subject to perishing.

Thus far his knowledge had brought him towards the end of the fifth septenary from his birth, viz., when he was 35 years old. And the consideration of this Supreme Agent was then so rooted in his heart that it diverted him from thinking upon anything else, and he so far forgot the consideration of the creatures and the enquiring into their natures, that as soon as e'er he cast his eyes upon anything of what kind soever, he immediately perceived in it the footsteps of this Agent; and in an instant his thoughts were taken off from the creature and transferred to the Creator. So that he was inflamed with the desire of Him, and his heart was altogether withdrawn from thinking upon this inferior world, which contains the objects of sense, and wholly taken up with the contemplation of the upper, intellectual world.

... The Improvement of Human Reason, ibn at-Tufail